9.2 The Palette of Michael Sweerts
A total of 10 paintings attributed to Sweerts have been examined in the context of the current research project. Five of these can be attributed to Sweerts’ Italian period (1646–c. 1655), while the other five are considered to be painted in the Low Countries (c. 1655–1660). This attribution is usually based on the occurrence of certain materials in the preparatory layers. In their 2002 chapter on Sweerts’ materials and techniques, Wallert and De Ridder concluded that the colour of the ground layer can give clues as to the origin of the painting. In the Netherlands and France, it was common practice to prepare the support with a double ground, of which the first was composed of economical materials (such as earth pigments and chalk), and the second layer was usually grey in colour. In contrast, a ‘typical’ Italian ground layer was reddish brown in colour and was applied in one layer.1 Within the oeuvre of Sweerts, both systems of preparatory layers have been found. Wallert and De Ridder concluded that Sweerts must have adjusted his preparatory layers according to local customs, and this difference in ground layers has been an important argument in the attribution of paintings to either Sweerts’ Italian sojourn or his time in the Low Countries.2
For the current research project, paintings by Sweerts made in both Italy and the Low Countries were selected for examination. Next to the colour of the preparatory layers, this attribution is based on additional factors including signature, subject and painting style. This allowed for contrasting Sweerts’ materials and techniques of both periods covering the lion’s share of his career. MA-XRF scanning gave more insight into the pigments present in his paintings. Although more research is still needed, some preliminary general conclusions can be drawn, which will be discussed here.
Sweerts’ palette throughout his career included earth pigments, lead white, vermilion, red and yellow lake pigments, bone black, a copper-based green pigment (perhaps verdigris) and ultramarine. Both during his Italian sojourn and his stay in the Netherlands, Sweerts extensively used earth pigments, such as ochres, umbers and also green earths. In all paintings examined in the current study, a large amount of iron and manganese were found. These elements can be found throughout the paintings. The presence of both elements is not limited to brownish colours only, but iron and manganese are also detected in colours ranging from yellow and red to green. This seems to suggest that Sweerts was able to create a lot of different colours, tones and hues with only earth pigments, a consistent practice throughout his career.
1
Michael Sweerts
Draughts players, dated 1652
The Hague, Koninklijk Kabinet van Schilderijen Mauritshuis, inv./cat.nr. 1121
2
MA-XRF Pb-L map
3
MA-XRF Sn-L map
Interestingly, some pigments were exclusively detected in Sweerts’ paintings from his Italian period. In A Game of Draughts (1652) [1], Sweerts made use of the pigment lead-tin-yellow. The yellow stockings of the youngsters contain both lead and tin, as can be seen in the Pb-L and Sn-L maps [2-3]. This suggests that lead-tin-yellow is present in this area.3 This pigment has – so far – not been encountered in Sweerts’ paintings executed in the Low Countries. This seems to suggest that Sweerts only used lead-tin-yellow during his stay in Italy.4
Sweerts’ use of the blue pigment ultramarine seems to have slightly changed after his return to the Low Countries. In his Italian paintings, he seems to have used the expensive pigment rather extensively. In A Game of Draughts, the blue stool is painted with ultramarine-based paint. MA-XRF analysis showed the presence of potassium in this area, which can be associated with the expensive blue pigment [4].5 No cobalt or silica were detected in this area, excluding the possibility that the blue pigment is smalt. Additionally, during its last conservation treatment in 2007-2008, conservators already noted that ultramarine was used to paint the upholstery of the stool.6
In his Peasant Family with a Man Defleaing Himself (c. 1646-1652, attributed to his Italian period), Sweerts mixed in ultramarine with lead white and a carbon black pigment to create the blue sky. MA-XRF analysis showed the presence of potassium and the absence of copper, silica and cobalt in the area of the sky, suggesting that ultramarine was present here [5-6]. Microscopic examination of the paint surface confirmed this.7 In A Game of Backgammon (c. 1646-1654), one of the women is wearing a bright blue skirt. This skirt also contains a large amount of potassium, indirectly suggesting that ultramarine is also present here [7-8]. Again, no cobalt or silica were detected in this area, excluding the possibility that the blue pigment is smalt. Microscopic examination of the area confirmed the presence of ultramarine in this area, as the blue pigment particles are visually typical of ultramarine.
4
MA-XRF K-K map of Game of Draughts
5
Michael Sweerts
Travellers and a man getting rid of fleas, c. 1656-1660
The Hague, Koninklijk Kabinet van Schilderijen Mauritshuis, inv./cat.nr. 886
6
MA-XRF K-K map of Peasant Family with a Man Defleaing Himself
7
Michael Sweerts
A game of backgammon, c. 1646-1654
Amsterdam, Geneva, art dealer Salomon Lilian Old Master Paintings
8
MA-XRF K-K map of A Game of Backgammon
Ultramarine was also found in some paintings dating from Sweerts’ period in the Low Countries. These paintings are A Woman Spinning (c. 1656) from Museum Gouda [9] and Man Reading a Book (c. 1650-1660) from a private collection.8 In A Woman Spinning, Sweerts used the expensive blue pigment to paint the blue cufflinks of the woman. In the case of Man Reading a Book, ultramarine was found to be used for the blue shirt of the man.9 Sweerts continued to use ultramarine for the blue areas of his paintings, yet his use of the expensive pigment slightly changed after his return to the Netherlands: he limited his use of ultramarine to small details. While in Italy, he often used ultramarine for rather large or multiple areas in a painting. He reduced his use of ultramarine, by limiting the use of it to small details. Remarkably, Sweerts did not substitute the expensive pigment with a more economical alternative, like smalt. No evidence has been found that he used blue pigments other than ultramarine.
Although more paintings need to be examined in order to gain a more comprehensive understanding of Sweerts’ use of pigments throughout his career, it seems that he used less expensive pigments while working in the Netherlands. No lead-tin-yellow has been found in paintings dating from his time in the Low Countries, although this pigment has been found in A Game of Draughts, dating from his Italian sojourn. Similarly, it seems that Sweerts used ultramarine more often and in larger quantities in his Italian works. In his Italian paintings, ultramarine was sometimes in relatively large or multiple areas present throughout the painting, while in the Netherlands, Sweerts seemed to have limited his use of ultramarine to smaller areas and details in the composition. Remarkably, he never substituted ultramarine for a more economical alternative.
9
Michael Sweerts
A woman spinning, c. 1656
Gouda, Museum Gouda, inv./cat.nr. 55250
Notes
1 Wallert/De Ridder 2002, p. 38-39.
2 Wallert/De Ridder 2002, p. 39.
3 No antimony was detected in this area, excluding the possibility that lead-tin-antimony was used.
4 Lead-tin-yellow is often associated with glass production and manufacture in Italy, and more specifically in Venice. As such, it would make sense that this pigment was readily available to Sweerts during his stay in Italy. However, it should be noted that lead-tin-yellow was intensively used by Early Netherlandish artists and by Flemish and Dutch artists who never went to Italy, such as Rembrandt van Rijn, indicating that the pigment was also available in the Netherlands.
5 Van Loon et al. 2020.
6 This was noted by paintings conservator P. Noble, author of the report of the 2007-2008 treatment, mentioning the presence of ultramarine in the blue stool. See documentation map 1121 of the Conservation Studio of the Mauritshuis.
7 Although analytical techniques are needed to identify ultramarine, microscopic examination also suggested the presence of ultramarine. The blue particles visible with the microscope in this area were very bright blue in colour and were very finely ground. The particles were not visually typical of smalt, indicating that either azurite or ultramarine was used. As MA-XRF scanning excluded the possibility of azurite (no copper was detected), the blue pigment must be identified as ultramarine.
8 Michael Sweerts, Man Reading a Book, c. 1650-1660. Oil on canvas, 58 x 40 cm. Private collection, the Netherlands.
9 Based on MA-XRF analysis (the presence of potassium and absence of copper in the blue areas) and microscopic examination (blue pigment particles, not visually typical for smalt), it is very likely that the blue pigment used in A Woman Spinning and Man Reading a Book is ultramarine.